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NATURAL VEGETATION
1. Types of Natural Vegetation (distribution and characteristics)

• Tropical rainforests and mangroves
• Tropical monsoon forests
• Coniferous forests
2. Adaptation of the Natural Vegetation to the Environment (particularly climate)

• Diversity of plant species
• Structure of the forest
• Density
• Leaves
• Flowers and fruits
• Roots
• Bark
3. Uses of Forests

• Habitat (humans, flora and fauna)
• Water catchment
• ‘Green Lungs of the Earth’
• Timber
• Medical
4. Case Study of Deforestation in a Tropical Rainforest

• Causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest (agriculture, logging, forest fires, urbanisation, housing, industrial activities and transport)


• Problems caused by deforestation
o Loss of habitat and extinction of species
o Changes in the nutrient cycle
o Changes in water quality (pH level and sediment level)
o Air pollution (haze)


• Management of tropical rainforests
o Sustainable management (controlled logging, afforestation and conservation)


RIVERS AND COASTS
1. River Processes and Their Related Landforms

• River system
• River processes
o Erosion (corrasion/ abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action and solution)
o Transportation (solution, suspension, saltation and traction)
o Deposition


• Landforms and features resulting from river processes
o Waterfalls (e.g. Niagara Falls, USA; Kota Tinggi Falls, Peninsular Malaysia)
o Gorges (e.g. Rhine Gorge, Germany; Three Gorges, China)
o Valleys (e.g. Rhine Valley, Germany; Ganges Valley, India)
o Floodplains (e.g. Mississippi, USA; Ganges, India and Bangladesh)
- Meanders, oxbow lakes and levees
o Deltas (e.g. Yangtze Delta, China; Mekong Delta, Vietnam)
- Distributaries
2. Coastal Processes and Their Related Landforms

• Coastal processes
o Erosion (waves and currents)
o Transportation (sediment movement and longshore drift)
o Deposition


• Landforms and features resulting from coastal processes
o Cliffs (e.g. White Cliffs of Dover, England)
o Headlands, shore platforms (e.g. Southern Dorset Coast, England)
o Bays (e.g. Emerald Bay, Peninsular Malaysia)
o Beaches (e.g. Changi Beach, Singapore)
o Spits (e.g. Hurst Spit, England)
o Tombolos (e.g. Loch Eriboll, Scotland)
3. River and Coastal Management

• River channel management
o Channelisation (re-alignment, re-sectioning, bank protection, planting of vegetation)


• Coastal protection measures
o Soft engineering (stabilising dunes, planting of vegetation, beach nourishment, encouraging the growth of coral reefs)
o Hard engineering (seawalls, breakwaters, groynes, gabions)



GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD
1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution Since 1960

• Variations in food consumption between DCs and LDCs
o Different levels of food consumption between DCs and LDCs
o Changing food preferences (e.g. rice, meat, fruits) in DCs and LDCs
o Production of non-staple food (e.g. coffee, olives) replacing production of staple food in the LDCs


• Reasons for the variations in food consumption between DCs and LDCs (adequacy of food availability, stability of food supply and access to food) and the resulting impact
2. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production

• Factors affecting intensity of food production with reference to relevant examples
o Physical (relief, soils and climate)
o Social (land tenure and land fragmentation)
o Economic (demand and capital)
o Political (government policy)
o Technological advances (Green Revolution and Blue Revolution)
3. Developments in Food Production

• Continuing intensification of food production activities (irrigation and use of chemicals) on water and soil quality


• Development of genetically modified food crops
o Benefits (economic and regional development)
o Threats (health and native species)


DEVELOPMENT
1. Variations in Development in the World

• Uneven development exists between DCs and LDCs
o Core-periphery relationships between DCs and LDCs
– Economic (income per capita, employment structure and employment opportunities)
– Health (life expectancy, infant mortality rate, water supply and sanitation)
– Education (literacy rate)
2. Reasons for Variations in Development in the World

• Reasons why uneven development exists between DCs and LDCs
o Historical (colonial history)
o Physical (raw materials and climate)
o Economic (process of cumulative causation)
o Social (education)
o Political (conflict and leadership)
3. Strategies to Alleviate Uneven Development

• National development (e.g. water supply, population policy, education, health)
• International co-operation
o Role of international organisations (World Bank and Asian Development Bank)
o International agreements (United Nations Millennium Development Goals and United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea)