Help yourself

Go to this site for definition of terms
http://www.geographyinthenews.rgs.org/glossary/default.aspx


For an explanation of longshore drift
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longshore_drift

For farming in Sinagpore

http://www.ava.gov.sg/AgricultureFisheriesSector/FarmingInSingapore/AgroTechParks/

For Green Revolution
http://www3.moe.edu.sg/edsoftware/ir/files/geo-agriculture/index.html

The Green Revolution has improved agricultural processes and techniques that led to huge increases in the production of crops. Many countries such as India, China, Philippines and Indonesia have benefited from the Green Revolution. Though it has brought about many benefits to developing countries, the use of modern technologies in the form of hybrid strains and chemical fertilisers in agriculture have brought about environmental as well as socioeconomic problems.


Cumulative Causation:

the process by which economic activity leading to prosperity and increasing economic development tends to concentrate in an area with an initial advantage, draining investment and skilled labour from the peripheral area (part of the backwash effect).


Core periphery theory
areas with different degrees of economic development. Within any particular region or country, development is unlikely to take place evenly. Areas with geographical advantages (such as soil fertility, raw materials, and access to trade routes) will become more developed than others. These are the core areas, where capital, infrastructure, and employment are concentrated, leaving periphery areas that lack these resources. Core and periphery regions may be identified at many levels. On a national scale, for example, the UK has a northern periphery and southeast core.

Do not panic Just additinal insurance If you do not understand no porblem

http://mayflower-firstaidkit.blogspot.com/2007/08/notes-on-map-reading.html














Map Reading Skills

1. Reading Grid References

a.Four-figure grid reference

Identify how a post office is represented on the map by reading the legend.

Look at the map and locate the grid square where the post office is found.

Read the easting (two figures – 10) and the northing (two figures – 37) that intersects at the bottom left corner of the grid square.

The four-figure grid reference is 1037.




















b.Six-figure grid reference
Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 of reading a four-figure grid reference.

Divide the space between the two eastings (08 and 09) into 10 equal parts. Number the parts 1 to 9.

Divide the space between the two northings (36 and 37) into 10 equal parts. Number the parts 1 to 9.

Locate the small square where the school is found.

Read the easting (three figures – 080) and the northing (three figures – 365) that intersect at the bottom left corner of the newly divided grid square.


Six-figure grid reference
The six-figure grid reference of the school is 080365.

Note: If the feature is very large, it is acceptable to accept any six-figure reference that lies within the boundary of that feature




2.Measuring Distances
















a.Straight-line distance

To measure the straight line distance between the post office and school:
Locate the road (or feature) you wish to measure.

Place a piece of paper between the given points. Mark out their position at the edge of the piece of paper.

Put the paper on the line scale of the map.

Adjust your paper to read off the answer (if necessary).

Express your answer either in km or m.





b.Curved distance (using a string)

1.Locate the road you want to measure on the map.

2.Place a piece of string carefully along the road.

3.Mark the starting point of your measurement on the string.












This is step 2 even though the label is step 3 in the diagram.




This is step 3 even though the label is step 2 in the diagram.




4.Place the string along the line to be measured and mark the ending point.











5.Straighten out the string.








6.Move it to the line scale on your map and work out the distance.













3.Finding Direction and Bearing

a. Direction


The direction of one place to another can be determined by using compass points.





The main points are north, south, east and west.


The other points are northeast, northwest, southeast and southwest.



For more accurate directions, further divisions are made between the compass points.

Always take note of the key word ‘from’ in the question.

The location that comes after this word is where you begin your measurement.














If you are required to measure the direction of the post office (101376) from the school (080365):

Locate the school and the post office using the grid references given.

Draw a grid north arrow at the centre of the school.

The vertical line must be parallel to the easting and the horizontal line to the northing.

Draw a line to connect the centre of the arrow to the center of the post office.

Determine the direction assuming the top of the map is always the grid north.

The direction of the post office from the school is east-northeast.


b.Compass Bearing


They are measured in degrees clockwise from 0° to 360°.


























To measure the bearing of the school from the post office:

Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 used for the measuring of directions.

Using a protractor, place the 0° on the right side of the grid north arrow and read clockwise to obtain the grid bearing.

If it is more than 180°, the protractor must be placed on the left side of the grid north arrow.

The compass bearing is 243°.




Measuring Gradient
Gradient refers to the steepness of the slope.


Gradient =

Difference in vertical height between two points
---------------------------------------------------------
Horizontal distance between two points


The vertical height can be obtained by looking at the value of the spot height, bench mark or trigonometrical station.

You can also derive it by reading the contour lines.

The horizontal distance can be obtained by measuring the straight line or curved distance between the two given points.

Gradients are usually expressed in ratios such as 1:5, meaning that for every 5 units on the ground there is an increase/decrease in height by 1 unit.






To locate the gradient between the school and the post office:

Locate the school and the post office using the grid references given.

Derive the height of both the school and the post office by checking the contour lines.

Calculate the difference in height between the school (50m) and the post office (150m).

Last minute development scheme in Malaysia

In case you need one more e.g. of development schmen in Malaysia
http://www.felda.net.my/felda/english/felda01.asp



Federal Land Development Authority, better known as FELDA is the foremost land development agency in Malaysia. FELDA was established on 1st July 1956 under the Land Development Act 1956 as a result of recommendation of Government Working Committee.

FELDA was established with the purpose to help the government carried out rural land development schemes and to uplift the economic status as well as living standard of the rural community.

Originally, FELDA was functioning as a board to manage and channel financial aids to the state Government to carry out land development schemes in the respective states besides coordinating land development in these states which include the movement of population within the states.
Later FELDA's function was enlarged by the government and from 1961 FELDA was entrusted to carry out on its own development and settlement schemes throughout the country.

Todate, FELDA has developed approximately 480 new areas totalling 853,313 hectares which became plantation and settlement areas.

A total of 112,635 people were chosen as settlers from among the rural poor and landless community. Together with their families, they were resettled in the new settlement. Land development and settlement in the rural areas has now brought economic and social development as well as political stability to the country.

Through land development and settlement, FELDA has uplifted the living standard of the rural community as well as narrowing the gap in the quality of the life between the urban and rural population

Mnemonics for food notes

Pg 10: Reasons for variation in food consumption:
A f*ing (AFfordibility)
Stupid (STability)
Ass (Accessibility)
TAAGs (>> Trade, Availability of ......etc)

PG 22: Part II: Factors affecting Food Productivity
Poly (POLItical)
Technic (TECHNology)
Stop (Social)
Physical (Physical)
Education (Economic)

Pg 36: Part IIb: Problems due to intensifying food production
Irritating (problems due to IRRIgation:)
Salty (salinisaiton)
Water (Waterlogging)

Chemically (problems due to use of CHEMICALS)
Imbalanced (Imbalance of soil nutrients)
Eeeky (Eutrophication)
Water (WATER pollution)

Dear Students

Wednesday:
This is the final set of notes for the geog of food. It is also uploaded in the LMS.
I will not upload anymore notes. Good luck for those who are doing A Math.

http://www.transferbigfiles.com/Get.aspx?id=fe803444-b90d-4b91-966c-98f1ee283f87

Good luck for tomorrow.



Tuesday:
I have just seen the English exam paper. My daughter being a pte candidate managed to take home the paper. Does not look to bad.

What can you do from now to Thursday afternoon?
a.Practise your math
b. Go through this blog with a fine tooth comb and try to remember as many facts as possible. Egeog is still a lot of recall, explanation question so if you study you can score unlike ss where you have to think alot. Not that you do not have to think for egoeg.


Mr Luo and I have doen our best and the rest is up to you all. DO nto scroll down the blog too fast. Try to understand the answers.

Good luck.


Monday:
We are indebted to Mr Luo who worked hard to update the notes on food . I have already upload on the LMS and if you cannot get it, the link is here.

http://www.transferbigfiles.com/Get.aspx?id=553ee664-2534-43c7-b5b2-772f1f4341b4

There is an article about China land reform for those who are doing Geog of Food.If you cannot understand it is o.k.

I have posted additional question and answers on river, coast and natural vegetation to stimulate your mind. If yo udo nto understand do not panic. These are just extra for that extra insurance to get the A 1


Good luck for your chemistry today. By the time you see this blog
many who have done the paper.
You cannot change the past only the future.

Good luck for you English paper tomorrow.
Today I have posted two set of news articles .

The first is on development of Singapore.It is very important for you to read.

I have also posted three articles on hunger which were published by Straits Time. Hope this will help give you the additional edge.

Case study of Typhoon Nargis.( This question shows how the topic of river, coast and natural vegetation can be combined together with development))

Figure 1A
Source:. www.acc-tv.com/images/wjla/news/envna_myanmarcyclone


On 2 May 2008 tropical cyclone Nargis hit the coast of Myanmar and devastated large parts of the low-lying Irrawaddy delta. Winds exceeding 190 kilometres per hour ripped through the Myanmar’s biggest city Yangon for more than ten hours. Homes were flattened, more sturdy structures damaged, trees uprooted and power lines downed. In rural parts of the country up to 95 per cent of homes were wiped off the face of the earth. There was an estimated loss of
146 000 lives.

Figure 1B
Source: www.ifrc.org

1. Figure 1A is a map showing the path of Cyclone Nargis which caused a natural disaster in Myanmar on 2 May 2008. Figure 1B is a short write–up on the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis on the southern coastal areas of Myanmar.


a) (i) Name the natural disaster related to tropical cyclone Nargis that happened to Myanmar.[1]

(ii) What evidence from Figure 1B suggest that the destruction caused by nature, Cyclone Nargis, was severe? [5]

(iii)Suggest 3 other natural causes that could have contributed to the severity of the natural disaster .[3]

b)What are some human activities that are likely to have contributed to the severity of the destruction brought about by Cyclone Nargis. Support your answer with examples.[8]


Suggested Answers
a(i) Name the natural disaster related to tropical cyclone Nargis that happened to Myanmar.[1]

Natural Disaster related to Cyclone Nargis or any tropical storm is FLOOD. ( 1)


(ii) What evidence from Figure 1B suggest that the destruction caused by nature, Cyclone Nargis, was severe? [5]

Evidence from write up pointing to the severity of destruction

· Estimate loss of lives was 146 000

· Flooding of large part of low lying Irrawady delta caused by strong wind pushing the waves inland making the floods more severe because Cyclone Nargis would have deposited a lot of rainwater as all tropical storms do.

· Strong wind tore away homes in Yangon the capital city.

· Rural area 95 % of homes ripped off- millions of people loss their homes

· Trees uprooted showing the strength of the storm

· Power lines fallen could have caused death by electrification of people in the vicinity .

[must infer that large number of people died. Must infer that urban areas tend to have more people of which Yangon is one of the places that the cyclone Nargis Swept through dumping lots of Rainfall..


(iii)Suggest 3 other natural causes that could have contributed to the severity of the natural disaster .[3]

· Melting of snow from the Himalayan mountains caused River Irrawady to swell and flood the banks.

· The floodplains of Irrawady delta are too low-lying resulting in floods whenever there is heavy rain .

· Rivers channel bed has become shallow due to heavy silting.

· Storm surge resulting from the strong storm winds .


b)What are some human activities that are likely to have contributed to the severity of the destruction brought about by Cyclone Nargis. Support your answer with examples.[8]

Clearing of forests

· Satellite pictures of Irrawaddy delta shows that deforestation on a large scale has caused heavy silting of River Irrawaddy and the extension of the delta further out into the Bay of Bengal .(1)

-Deforestation Increase surface runoff when less trees intercept the rainwater in tropical climate. (1)

--Heavy silting of river bed is the result of increased rate of erosion on bare slopes after deforestation. There are no roots to bind the soil on slopes. (1)

-Silting of river beds would mean the riverbed is shallow and hence has less capacity to discharge water into the sea giving rise to flooding when there is a storm surge (1) when strong wind pushes the sea water in inland through the delta region causing severe flooding

· Rapid growth in population and the fertile alluvial soil of Irrawaddy delta have attracted many poor people to settle in the delta region to practice subsistence farming. A delta being flat would have spurred growth of transportation resulting in large migration of people (1) to the delta region.
So when the tropical storm hit the area, more people are
affected as compared to a smaller population.(1)

· Urban development

Myanmar being an LDC would mean there is rapid urbanization because of rural-urban migration.
More roads and concrete pavement would be constructed to cater to heavy human traffic. (1)

Concrete pavement increases surface run off (1) resulting in rainwater flowing into the river channel quicker than a forested area. Result is severe flooding in urban areas

· Enhanced greenhouse effect

-Global warming has increased the intensity of tropical storms in recent years resulting in greater destruction e.g Katrina of 2005 hit Florida and New Orleans in USA.
So is the intensity of Nargis…the most powerful Tropical storm that Myanmar has ever recorded.(1)

-Increased atmospheric temperature has caused greater rate of melting of snow in the Himalayas (1)which is the source of Irrawaddy River. The greater melting of snow means more water in river channel. When the greater volume of water in the channel meets with the storm surge, there is a double whammy. Flooding will be very severe.

Award marks for efforts in explaining processes involved e.g deforestation and erosion, increased surface runoff and silting of rivers.

Award marks for candidate who show application of knowledge of rapid snow melting due to global warming and silting plus the dumping of rain by the storm that have contributed to the severity of storm- a case of nature and man creating this horrendous event.


c) Evaluate the effectiveness of management strategies that can reduce the negative impact of floods.[8]

Strategies in reducing negative impact of floods.

1.Building artificial levées and dykes
Walls of sand, stone and concrete are built along river banks to increase the capacity of the river to hold water.

2.Construction of dams
Dams control the amount of water flowing into the rivers, using gates to hold back or release water.

3.Building control
Maps showing flood-prone areas provide information for developers to ensure that floods would not affect the buildings they construct.

4.Watershed management
Programmes can be implemented to manage the entire watershed by conserving vegetation cover or re-planting trees so as to reduce surface run-off.

5.Flood insurance
Residents in flood-prone areas can have their property insured against flood, so that they can afford to repair their property if floods occur.

6.Monitoring and education
Scientists can use modern technology to monitor weather patterns and warn of floods in advance.
Citizens can be educated on how to react when floods occur.

7.Post-flood management measures
Plans can be made by authorities to evacuate victims when floods occur.
Foreign aid may also be offered to help flood victims.

Level 1 (0-3m)
States/ describes the measures of flood control
Provides no/ brief examples with little details of how effective those measures are in flood control

Level 2 (4-6m)

Candidate gave his judgement statement such as ‘to a certain extent’ and gave reason(s) why he said so.
Provides explanations with 2 details but provides one –sided e.g only hardwares like building of dams, dykes, artificial levees and did not give the software measures like educating people on deforestation impact and what to do in a flood.
Citing of examples like Singapore River that had undergone resectioning to deepen and widen the river channel to increase its capacity to discharge storm water.

Level 3 (7-8m)
Judgement statement and indicating how some strategies are more feasible in Less Developed Countries because of lack of funds to construct or maintain the hardwares like construction of dykes, dams

Provide more than 3 measures and weigh the feasibility of each measure especially in the context of LDCs.

Application of knowledge of how corruption of govt officials can derail flood management by diverting funds meant for such flood management into their own pocket
how poverty can make buying of flood insurance a non feasible measure e.g in LDCS like Myanmar.

Worksheet on River and Coast ( Combination of River and Coasttopic)

1 a. Figure 1A is a graph showing surface runoff into a river channel from an urban area and a forested area.

a(i)Describe the differences in the surface runoff into the river channel from the urban and the forested areas. [4]

(ii)Explain why there is a difference in the surface runoff into the river channel. [6]

b. Account for the different characteristics of a river in its upper and lower course. [7]

Suggested Answers

a(i)Describe the differences in the surface runoff into the river channel from the urban and the forested areas. [4]

Urban area
Description of graph
· The graph shows that the surface runoff into river channel for urban areas is much higher than the runoff in forested areas. (1)
· The graph also shows a shorter time taken for the peak shown representing the discharge into the river channel (1) from the urban areas.

Forested area
Description of graph
· The graph shows that less water is discharged into the river channel from forested area(1)
· The graph also shows the rainwater takes a longer time to reach its peak in the river channel(1)


(ii)Explain why there is a difference in the surface runoff into the river channel. [6]

Urban Area

Explanation of graph

· In an urban area, there will be very high surface runoff and little infiltration into the asphalt and concrete surfaces

· Rain which falls immediately gets channelled into drains and from there into the river. (1)

· There is no interception or absorption because of asphalt and concrete ground (1).

· Rapid rise of water in river channel soon after the rain will likely cause floods.

Rural Area

· Less concrete and more natural vegetation to intercept rain resulting in less surface runoff immediately after the rain.(1)

· Percolation of rainwater into the ground which acts like a sponge would mean water will travel underground and fill up the water table before excess water finds its way back into the river channel somewhere further downstream.

This explains why the forested areas have less surface runoff that goes into the river channel which will cause flood.

b. Account for the different characteristics of a river in its upper and lower course. [7]









1 m for each pairing of description

1 m for each pairing of description

Explanation for the shape and other characteristics

Upper course
· In the upper section of the river, the river water is moving very fast because
· the gradient is steep.(1)
· The rocks that the river carries are very potent in eroding the bed of the river because they act as tools to help chisel the sides and bed of the river .
· More vertical erosion takes place resulting in (1)
· a steep-sided V shape valley and gorges and waterfalls

Lower course
· In the lower section of the river, the river valley acquires a wide V shape because

· the river is moving slowly due to loss of gradient, increase in load in channel and consequent loss of energy

· so more lateral erosion occurs resulting in a broad channel and

· deposition of fine river alluvium takes place resulting in formation of floodplains after several episodes of flooding.Max of 4m—any plausible explanation

Figure 1B shows one coastal management strategy.

Identify the coastal management strategy shown in Figure 1B.
Evaluate the effectiveness of several strategies in coastal protection.

Candidates may include the following :

Groynes
· Constructed at right angles to the coast to encourage deposition of materials transported by longshore drift

· Materials are deposited on the side of the groynes facing longshore drift

· However, groynes deprive the coast further down from receiving fresh supply of materials and hence aggravate erosion of the coast on the opposite side of the groyne that does not face the oncoming longshore drift i.e the downdrift side.

· Need to build a series of groynes to protect the entire stretch of the coast

· Short term protection.

Breakwaters
· Waves are made to break offshore at a distance from the coast causing destructive waves to lose energy

· Create a zone of quiet waters between the breakwaters and the coast

· Waves may deposit sediments to create a beach Over time, they serve to extend the coast seawards in the form of a beach.

· Breakwaters only encourage deposition along the part of the coast that is protected.

· The other parts of the coast that is left unprotected will
deprives the coast further down from receiving fresh
supply of materials

· Need to build a series of breakwaters to protect the entire stretch of coast

Seawalls.

· A seawall is usually made of concrete which absorbs the energy of the waves and protects the coast against strong waves.

· Does not guard against backwash, resulting in base of seawalls being eroded away. Seawalls can collapse over time.

· It is costly to build and maintain a seawall.

Soft engineering
· Plant mangroves along shore. Protect the coast against erosion by strong waves and winds. Roots of mangrove bind loose soil

· Prop roots trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion

· Increased sediment buildup may result in shallower coast – affect port activities

· However, coasts with destructive waves do not support mangroves.

· Planting of marran grass along the beach may help to trap sand .

· However all forms of soft engineering would still require human cooperation in the form of limiting human activities in order for nature to take root.

Candidates at each level will show the following characteristics:

Level 1 (0-3m)

May not refer to a measure or be vague in expression
No place reference or very general references to location
No mention of effectiveness, or simple statements only eg. “it worked”, “it was a lot better”

Level 2 (4-6m)

One or more measures considered

Allow assessment of measures
Brief statements of effectiveness, ‘it stopped erosion taking place,’ or ‘erosion occur less often’

Level 3 (7-8m)

Several measures considered in detail. Both hard and soft engineering methods discussed.

Clear statements of judgement such as ‘ high/ low degree of effectiveness ‘

CHINA'S LAND REFORMS

Oct 20, 2008

Farmers working in the fields of Wenxian County, Longnan City, in north-west gansu Province. There is hope the new reforms will boost rural incomes in China. -- PHOTO: XINHUA


740m farmers benefit from new policy
They have rights to pool their land for the first time since 1949
By Peh Shing Huei

BEIJING: China's top leaders finally announced yesterday the bold land reforms which its 740 million farmers have been waiting for - a week after observers feared it may have been torpedoed internally.

For the first time since the communists took over the country in 1949, farmers would have the formal rights to 'sub-contract, lease, exchange and swop their land use', reported the official Xinhua news agency.

But the land remains collectively owned and not privatised.
By allowing farmers to pool their land, it is expected to lead to greater economies of scale and boost productivity through modern machinery.
That, hopefully, would boost rural income, as the countryside has been left behind during China's economic boom in the last three decades.
Experts say farmers' bargaining power over their land is expected to increase substantially with the new policy, especially if land leases are increased. At present, farmers can lease land for a maximum term of 30 years.

And while yesterday's document did not specify the new tenure, it stated that land contracts would be 'unchanged over time' (chang jiu bu bian), a departure from previous policy statements which just said 'over the long term' (chang qi bu bian).

This could mean that land leases may likely be extended to over 30 years, driving up the land value significantly. Observers had speculated that it could be 70 years, as is the case with urban residential land.

'This is great for the farmers,' said rural sociologist Zhu Qizhen of China Agricultural University in Beijing. 'They can demand a higher price for their land if they want to sell. Now, local officials offer them a pittance when they take their land, since their leases are only for 30 years.'

If leases were indeed extended, farmer Wang Yuling, 55, from north-eastern Liaoning province, says he would be able to 'invest more in fertiliser and irrigation systems for the land, and produce more crops'.

Giving farmers more say over their land would hopefully guard against rampant land grabs by local officials, who seize plots for sale to property developers and factories.

Almost half of the tens of thousands of peasant protests every year is related to land grabs - a particularly alarming statistic for the Chinese leaders, acutely aware that peasant rebellions were usually the cause for regime change in imperial China.

The rise of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was itself backed by peasants and it has been careful in showing that it has not forgotten its roots.

Yesterday's document tries to assuage these fears, asserting that the transfers must be on the farmers' own accord. Food security of the nation must also not be compromised, with reforms not allowing farmland to be converted to other use.

Local authorities were urged to firmly safeguard the 120 million hectares minimum farmland baseline.

Even though the new policy was approved last Sunday by the CCP's decision-making central committee at a key political meeting, it ended without any mention of land transfers.

The omission led observers to wonder if there had been a disagreement within the party, with the traditionalists opposing bacause they feared that farmers could end up with no land and no jobs in the cities.
There were also concerns Beijing would be more cautious about reforms in the light of the financial crisis.

Prior to the plenum, President Hu Jintao made a public visit to an Anhui village, promising farmers the right to transfer their land. 'Land is the life of the people. It directly affects the country's social stability and that relates to political change,' said rural policy expert Hu Xingdou of the Beijing Institute of Technology.
shpeh@sph.com.sg
Additional reporting by Sim Chi Yin

Little Green Dot (From a backwater town to a sparkling metropolis)

Development of Singapore Then and Now.

Study the following set of pictures which shows how development in Singapore has taken place. Then read the following two articles.

THEN: Images of the garbage-choked Singapore River are perhaps the starkest reminder of the country's polluted past. A 10-year programme to clean up Singapore's waterways was launched in 1977 by then-prime minster Lee Kuan Yew. -- ST FILE PHOTO


NOW: Singapore's waterways are not only clean, but they also have an essential role as water catchment areas. In addition, they will soon be places of recreation under the Active, Beautiful and Clean Waterways project by the national water agency, the PUB. -- TNP FILE PHOTO


A photo from the book depicts the dismal state of Singapore's garbage disposal system in the 1960s. Bins groaning with rubbish are emptied into a lorry. -- PHOTO: NATIONAL ARCHIVES










THEN: Workers collecting buckets of nightsoil in 1961. Human waste had to be removed in this way as the sewerage network was not as extensive or advanced as it is today. -- ST FILE PHOTO




NOW: The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System transports waste water via a network of tunnels up to 60m underground. The $7 billion 'superhighway' channels used water to a treatment plant in Changi. -- ST FILE PHOTO



THEN: Up till the 1970s, hawkers lined the streets, dumping their food waste and refuse onto sidewalks and into rivers. To improve public hygiene and standards of food preparation, hawkers were moved into purpose-built centres across the island. -- PHOTO: NATIONAL ARCHIVES

NOW: Singapore's hawker centres have become a mainstay of local cuisine, with many becoming tourist attractions in their own right. A major upgrading exercise launched in the 1990s has given more than half of the island's over 100 hawker centres a facelift. -- ST PHOTO FILE



Oct 18, 2008
BOOK REVIEW

From a backwater town to a sparkling metropolis

A book documenting Singapore's environmental journey will be launched next week. Clean, Green And Blue shows how the Republic has grown from a dirty, resource-poor town into a bustling cosmopolitan centre for green technology. Professor Asit Biswas, the 2006 Stockholm Water Prize winner, reviews the book.

I VIVIDLY recall a discussion that I had when Singapore became an independent country in August 1965, at the Faculty Club of the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, where I was teaching then.

The topic of our discussion was the future of Singapore. My four colleagues were somewhat pessimistic.

They did not see how a small state of about 600 sq km at the time, with a population of only about 1.5 million, no natural resources, per capita GDP of around US$1,500 (S$2,220), and no significant manufacturing and industrial base, could have a bright future.

My view was different.

I argued that behemoths such as India and China would find it difficult to turn on a dime.

However, a small nation like Singapore could be nimble, provided it had enlightened and strong leadership and good governance.

Looking back, it turns out that I was closer to the truth.

By 2005 - a period of only 40 years - the country had nearly four million people and a per capita GDP of close to US$27,000, an astonishing increase of 18 times over 1965.

The questions that need to be answered at present are how did Singapore do it, and what were the enabling conditions that made this country a miracle in the history of development?

My view has not changed during these four decades. The main reasons for this remarkable transformation have been enlightened and strong leadership and good governance, from which every strand of development has flowed.

Thus, it is appropriate that the book is dedicated to former prime minister (now Minister Mentor) Lee Kuan Yew, whose leadership ensured this miracle.

In this authoritative book, Mr Tan Yong Soon, who is the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, with the help of his colleagues Lee Tung Jean and Karen Tan, explains objectively and candidly the country's long environmental journey over the past 40 years.

It explains how Singapore made this transformation, as well as the background and the rationale for the policies that were formulated and, what is more important, successfully implemented; as well as the institutional evolutions that occurred which made this possible.

Right from its very independence, its leaders realised that environment and development are two sides of the same coin.

One affects the other and, in turn, is affected by the other.
For example: the Water Catchment Policy that was introduced in 1983 to control developments within unprotected catchment areas.

Less intensive development in these areas, coupled with stringent pollution control measures, helped ensure the good quality of water collected.

MM Lee clearly pointed out as early as 1968 the importance of maintaining 'a clean and green city'.

This was four years before the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Stockholm, when the world started to realise the importance of maintaining a good environment, concurrent with population growth, urbanisation and industrialisation.

The main ingredients which ensured where Singapore is today are:
Continuous clear vision of its leaders as to where the country should go in the future, and strong endorsement of this vision by its people;

Transformation of the vision into long-term plans, which have regularly evolved over time as the world and national conditions have so warranted;

Continuous consideration of management, technological and institutional innovations in the planning process; and

Ensuring that the vision, plans and programmes are practical and do-able, and can be implemented cost-effectively and within a stipulated time period with the full support of its people.

This approach has worked not only in the area of environment, but also in all aspects of the nation's development.

The book analyses how this overall philosophy was successfully implemented to control and manage air, land and water pollution.

It shows a nation that was transformed from a backwater town into a vibrant metropolis with cutting-edge water technology.

This remarkable and very readable book will not only make all Singaporeans proud of their environmental achievements and heritage, but also provide many valuable and practical lessons to other countries - both developed and developing - as to how their own environment can also be successfully managed.

In a world where gloom and doom stories take centre stage, it is refreshing to see a comprehensive analysis which shows categorically that, given good leadership (both political and professional), environment-development problems can be solved.

For anyone interested in such issues, and even if you read only one book a year, I would have no hesitation recommending that you read this remarkable and uplifting story of Singapore's environmental journey.

There is much to learn from this success story.

The writer is president of the Third World Centre for Water Management, Mexico, and Distinguished Visiting Professor at the Lee Kuan Yew School for Public Policy. He won the 2006 Stockholm Water Prize - the highest honour in the water profession. His work has been translated into 32 languages.

Oct 18, 2008

Little Green Dot

A new book shows how Singapore achieved environmental and water sustainability in just 40 years

By Tania Tan

BALANCING two big 'E's - the economy and the environment - will be Singapore's biggest challenge in the years to come. But if history is anything to go by, the little red dot has what it takes to live green and prosper.

A new book, which tells the Singapore story from the viewpoint of the environment, is now out.

Clean, Green And Blue spans the early days when getting clean water to citizens was a challenge, to the cutting-edge water technologies being developed here today.

Singapore has seen it all in the space of 40 short years.
In the coming uncertain times, economic growth may have to take precedence, but not at the expense of the environment, said Mr Tan Yong Soon, Permanent Secretary for the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources, who penned the book along with his colleagues from the ministry.

'There will be some trade-offs if you want to achieve both,' he added. 'But it's doable.'

Published by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, the book is a 'how-to guide' for anyone interested in replicating Singapore's environmental success, said Mr Tan.

It gives a detailed look at how Singapore went about achieving environmental and water sustainability, which he hopes will 'urge Singaporeans to continue to support the environment'.

And because the green journey is a 'never-ending one', each person has a role to play, said Mr Tan.

The book is also a showcase of Singapore's environment and water achievements that its authors hope will help inspire other countries to achieve green gains.

'That's not to say that we have arrived,' said Mr Tan. 'There's always room for improvement.'

But the nation has always tried to live by the principle of balancing economic growth with liveability.

The 450-page book took about a year to write and is chock-full of
examples of the constant struggle between the two.

For example, then prime minister Lee Kuan Yew's bold decision in the 1970s to enforce legislation by the Anti-Pollution Unit, which imposed strict rules on polluting industries, seemed to threaten industrial growth in the fledgling nation.

But the decision to stand firm resulted in minimal smoke pollution - ensuring Singapore enjoyed good air quality alongside industrial growth.
It took foresight and practicality to progress without destroying the natural environment.

Singapore in the 1960s was a cesspool of filthy waterways and rudimentary sewerage systems - a situation many countries still face.
The first step was to bring clean water to people and build proper waste management facilities. Creating jobs by boosting the manufacturing industry without causing pollution was another hurdle that needed to be crossed.

For a nation without its own water supply or other natural resources, water independence was also put high on the national agenda - a move that resulted in the production of Newater some 30 years later.

Cleaning up the country's waterways, keeping industrial air pollution at bay and maintaining public hygiene have been the result of 'hard work and far-sightedness' from top leaders, especially from Mr Lee, now the Minister Mentor.

'We were very fortunate that our leaders had a clear vision, without which I doubt we would be where we are now,' noted Mr Tan.

Another little-known detail is that the country has spent more than $10 billion on major environmental infrastructure works over the past 30 years.

The book will be given to schools and institutions and used as a reference for foreign delegates participating in training workshops here.
Environmental proponents are looking forward to the tome.

The book gives 'interesting insights' into Singapore's environmental experience, especially in solving water problems, said Dr K.E. Seetharam, director of the Institute of Water Policy at the Lee Kuan Yew
School of Public Policy.

World-renowned water expert Asit Biswas, founder of the Third World Centre for Water Management in Mexico, also gave Singapore the thumbs up for its environmental journey so far.

But he was quick to add that many improvements could still be made in energy conservation.

'I walk into buildings and I'm frozen solid,' he told The Straits Times. 'The key will be whether this country can maintain its success in the years to come.'

Certainly, the Government is not leaving that to chance.
After the National Environment Agency launched a five-year, 10 per cent Energy Challenge campaign in April, the average household monthly consumption went down almost 4 per cent between May and August, compared to last year.

As Mr Tan wrote in the book: 'Going forward, Singapore needs to do more through setting higher standards for energy efficiency, regulations, and finding the right mechanisms and incentives to achieve the desired improvements in energy efficiency.'
taniat@sph.com.sg

Global financial crisis threatens aid to the world's hungry, warns World Food Programme official

Pakistani people receive donated food at a distribution centre in Lahore on the eve of World Food Day. The UN's food-aid arm is US$2 billion short of the funds it needs to feed over 90 million hungry people worldwide. -- PHOTO: ASSOCIATED PRESS

Oct 17, 2008
UN agency issues SOS for food aid


Global financial crisis threatens aid to the world's hungry, warns World Food Programme official



By Radha Basu

THE global financial crisis has put the world's hungry at risk of not getting the food they need.
Given this year's skyrocketing food prices and more natural disasters, the World Food Programme (WFP) needs to raise US$6 billion (S$8.9 billion) - twice as much as last year - to feed 90 to 95 million people in more than 80 countries.

Its spokesman for Asia, Mr Paul Risley, told The Straits Times that if funds are not forthcoming, it may have to cut back on programmes or the number of people it helps.

'We are concerned that donor countries will reduce their commitments in view of the financial crisis,' he said. 'That's really the last thing we need.'

The food-aid arm of the United Nations is the world's largest humanitarian agency, providing rations to people from the poorest communities, conflict zones and areas decimated by natural disasters.

Ahead of World Food Day yesterday it said that it is still short of US$2 billion to feed the hungry this year.

Mr Risley said it is important for governments, companies and ordinary folk to open their wallets, even during difficult times.

'Millions of the world's poor are but a single natural disaster away from calamity,' he said.

In Myanmar, for instance, many people had sacks of rice stored in their kitchens but Cyclone Nargis devoured their supplies when it hit in early May.

'Living as we do in a world made very small by air travel and e-mail, helping is just the humane thing to do,' he said.

While disaster relief often spurs generosity, Mr Risley said that chronic hunger still lies below the radar of many donors.

'Hunger and malnutrition remain the biggest risk to health worldwide - greater than Aids, malaria and tuberculosis combined - claiming one child's life every five seconds,' he said.

Indeed, 25,000 people die every day from hunger-related causes, mostly in India, Bangladesh and sub-Saharan Africa.

A doubling in the prices of rice, wheat and maize early this year worsened the plight of the hungry.

The World Bank says the price hikes pushed an estimated 100 million people back into extreme poverty and malnutrition.

The number of malnourished people will rise to 967 million this year from 820 million two years ago, it says, wiping away years of gain from hunger-eradication programmes.

World Bank president Robert Zoellick said last week that while the financial crisis is the centre of attention, 'many forget that a human crisis is rapidly unfolding in developing countries. It is pushing people to the brink of survival'.

Citing the contributing factors, Mr Risley said that countries have been investing less in agriculture, with richer industrial nations preferring to import staple foods like rice.

In Asia, growing urbanisation has led to farmlands being eaten up by factories, and low-value crops like rice being replaced with cash crops like oil palm.

At the same time, rapid economic growth and burgeoning populations in developing countries have meant greater demand than ever for food.

It has not helped that food-exporting nations like the Philippines, India and Pakistan have become importers and imposed export bans.

Pakistan's ban on wheat exports, for example, directly affected millions in Afghanistan. 'Almost overnight, we had an additional 2.3 million mouths to feed in Afghanistan,' said Mr Risley.

Mr Risley, who visited Singapore recently, hoped the Government, companies and individuals would donate more to the programme.

Some, like Yum Foods, have already shown the way. The restaurant company. which owns Pizza Hut and KFC, raised US$118,000 for the WFP here in Singapore last year as part of a global campaign. A similar fund-raising effort this year will end next week.

'Money is the quickest means to transfer food from one plate to another - and provide a tangible gift of life,' said Mr Risley.

radhab@sph.com.sg

To donate, log on to www.fromhungertohope.com or http://www.wfp.org/

Oct 17, 2008

Oxfam appeals for funds: 'Nearly a billion people face starvation'

LONDON: Oxfam launched an urgent appeal to mark UN World Food Day yesterday, saying that even as hundreds of billions of dollars were being directed to tackle the financial crisis, the number of people worldwide facing starvation has risen to nearly one billion.

'Rich countries are directing their attention to high fuel prices and turmoil in the financial sector, but the number of malnourished people in the world rose by 44 million in 2008,' the British-based international aid charity said.

'Nearly one billion people are now going hungry. When you consider the speed of the world's response to the credit crisis, the delay in acting is shocking.'

Oxfam said it needed an extra US$26.2 million (S$38.8 million) for its humanitarian work, a sum that is paltry compared to the billions made available in days to bail out Western banks.

It also noted that five months after countries promised to give more than US$12 billion to address the global food emergency, under US$1 billion has been given.

'These are tough times for many of us, but huge increases in food prices mean that the world's poorest are being hit hardest,' said Oxfam chief executive Barbara Stocking.

The charity said higher food prices meant people were eating less and lower quality food, while children were being pulled out of school and farmers were migrating to city slums.

The Oxfam report contrasts the global food crisis with the huge profits being made by the farm and food companies, the Guardian reported.
'The trend in agriculture, as in international finance, has been towards deregulation and a reduced role for the state,' Ms Stocking said. 'It is time the world woke up to the need for developing country governments to support their poor farmers, and the obligation of developed countries to help them to do so.'

In a global opinion poll released on the eve of World Food Day, Britain's BBC World Service reported that almost two-thirds of people surveyed in the Philippines, Panama, Kenya and Nigeria say they are now eating less because of the rise in food prices.

While world grain prices have been tumbling back down the steep slope they climbed early this year, food bills from London to Manila remain 9 per cent to 16 per cent higher than a year ago, according to the latest national reports.

And experts worry that the wild swings may turn uphill again.
The global financial crisis 'puts us in a precarious position', said United Nations' food economist Abdolreza Abbassian, who fears farmers frustrated by falling prices and credit shortages will plant less.

AGENCE FRANCE-PRESSE, ASSOCIATED PRESS

WHILE more can be done to shore up food production, cutting wastage is an equally urgent need, says Mr Paul Risley of the World Food Programme.
'The terrible waste that occurs in developed societies is frustrating to people who have seen the face of hunger in so many countries,' he says.
When The Straits Times first meets him, he is at Lau Pa Sat amid tables laden with half-eaten pratas, laksa and satay.

'Too much food is in the wrong places at the wrong time,' he says, acknowledging that what is wasted cannot quite be shipped to starving folk elsewhere.

'But if all of us pledge that we won't buy and waste so much and donate the money saved instead, we could see real changes.'

those who downloaded the development notes

The following videos are suppose to accompany some of the strategies to uneven development at a national scale stated in the development notes.

REMEMBER:
What matters is not the quantity of strategies you remember. What matters more is how you are able to link it to reducing uneven development.


India's Free Lunch Programme




Micro-financing


Further understanding of how micro-financing works (just for general knowledge purpose)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MrUQKuvsmvw

Please go to the following site for revision

1. Construction of cross section
http://www3.moe.edu.sg/edsoftware/ir/files/geo-construction-of-cross-sections/index.htm

2.Contours and slope
http://www3.moe.edu.sg/edsoftware/ir/files/geo-contours-and-slopes/index.htm

3.Grid reference
http://www3.moe.edu.sg/edsoftware/ir/files/geo-grid-reference/index.html

4.Gradient
http://www3.moe.edu.sg/edsoftware/ir/files/geo-triathlon/index.html

Check list of your revision

Check to see if you know all the following

NATURAL VEGETATION
1. Types of Natural Vegetation (distribution and characteristics)

• Tropical rainforests and mangroves
• Tropical monsoon forests
• Coniferous forests
2. Adaptation of the Natural Vegetation to the Environment (particularly climate)

• Diversity of plant species
• Structure of the forest
• Density
• Leaves
• Flowers and fruits
• Roots
• Bark
3. Uses of Forests

• Habitat (humans, flora and fauna)
• Water catchment
• ‘Green Lungs of the Earth’
• Timber
• Medical
4. Case Study of Deforestation in a Tropical Rainforest

• Causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest (agriculture, logging, forest fires, urbanisation, housing, industrial activities and transport)


• Problems caused by deforestation
o Loss of habitat and extinction of species
o Changes in the nutrient cycle
o Changes in water quality (pH level and sediment level)
o Air pollution (haze)


• Management of tropical rainforests
o Sustainable management (controlled logging, afforestation and conservation)


RIVERS AND COASTS
1. River Processes and Their Related Landforms

• River system
• River processes
o Erosion (corrasion/ abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action and solution)
o Transportation (solution, suspension, saltation and traction)
o Deposition


• Landforms and features resulting from river processes
o Waterfalls (e.g. Niagara Falls, USA; Kota Tinggi Falls, Peninsular Malaysia)
o Gorges (e.g. Rhine Gorge, Germany; Three Gorges, China)
o Valleys (e.g. Rhine Valley, Germany; Ganges Valley, India)
o Floodplains (e.g. Mississippi, USA; Ganges, India and Bangladesh)
- Meanders, oxbow lakes and levees
o Deltas (e.g. Yangtze Delta, China; Mekong Delta, Vietnam)
- Distributaries
2. Coastal Processes and Their Related Landforms

• Coastal processes
o Erosion (waves and currents)
o Transportation (sediment movement and longshore drift)
o Deposition


• Landforms and features resulting from coastal processes
o Cliffs (e.g. White Cliffs of Dover, England)
o Headlands, shore platforms (e.g. Southern Dorset Coast, England)
o Bays (e.g. Emerald Bay, Peninsular Malaysia)
o Beaches (e.g. Changi Beach, Singapore)
o Spits (e.g. Hurst Spit, England)
o Tombolos (e.g. Loch Eriboll, Scotland)
3. River and Coastal Management

• River channel management
o Channelisation (re-alignment, re-sectioning, bank protection, planting of vegetation)


• Coastal protection measures
o Soft engineering (stabilising dunes, planting of vegetation, beach nourishment, encouraging the growth of coral reefs)
o Hard engineering (seawalls, breakwaters, groynes, gabions)



GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD
1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution Since 1960

• Variations in food consumption between DCs and LDCs
o Different levels of food consumption between DCs and LDCs
o Changing food preferences (e.g. rice, meat, fruits) in DCs and LDCs
o Production of non-staple food (e.g. coffee, olives) replacing production of staple food in the LDCs


• Reasons for the variations in food consumption between DCs and LDCs (adequacy of food availability, stability of food supply and access to food) and the resulting impact
2. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production

• Factors affecting intensity of food production with reference to relevant examples
o Physical (relief, soils and climate)
o Social (land tenure and land fragmentation)
o Economic (demand and capital)
o Political (government policy)
o Technological advances (Green Revolution and Blue Revolution)
3. Developments in Food Production

• Continuing intensification of food production activities (irrigation and use of chemicals) on water and soil quality


• Development of genetically modified food crops
o Benefits (economic and regional development)
o Threats (health and native species)


DEVELOPMENT
1. Variations in Development in the World

• Uneven development exists between DCs and LDCs
o Core-periphery relationships between DCs and LDCs
– Economic (income per capita, employment structure and employment opportunities)
– Health (life expectancy, infant mortality rate, water supply and sanitation)
– Education (literacy rate)
2. Reasons for Variations in Development in the World

• Reasons why uneven development exists between DCs and LDCs
o Historical (colonial history)
o Physical (raw materials and climate)
o Economic (process of cumulative causation)
o Social (education)
o Political (conflict and leadership)
3. Strategies to Alleviate Uneven Development

• National development (e.g. water supply, population policy, education, health)
• International co-operation
o Role of international organisations (World Bank and Asian Development Bank)
o International agreements (United Nations Millennium Development Goals and United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea)

1(a) Using well-labelled diagrams only, explain how a waterfall and plunge pool is formed. [6]




(b) In managing river discharge, many countries have built dams, like the one in Fig. 1. Discuss the threats they pose to the human and physical environment
in employing such methods. [6]






(c) With reference to Fig. 2B which shows a sketch of the photo in Fig. 2A, explain how features Y and Z are formed by marine processes.[5]



(d) Study Fig. 2B, identify and evaluate suitable measures at the respective
places to protect tourists’ beach at X and the area at Z. [8]








Suggested answers


1 (a) Using well-labelled diagrams only, explain how a waterfall and plungepool is formed. [6]

Diagrams- 2m…..

4-5 diagram s— must show development of waterfall and the deepening of plunge pool

DRAW DIAGS

Waterfall
-sill, More Resistant rocks
-Less Resistant rocks lies downstream
-as river flows downstream
-dominant erosional processes- abrasion
-pebbles and rocks chiseled into the bed of the river
-causes the Less Resistant to erode more than the More Resistant
-changes in gradient of river channel
-steeper after prolong erosion, river flows over the steeper gradient that develop on the river bed
-As the water plunges over the steep gradient formed to the river bed below
-A waterfall is formed
-the sheer force of the water plunging [hydraulic action] over a steep gradient
-and the grinding action from eroded rocks and pebbles that are carried by the river
-leads to the formation of a plunge pool
-abrasion- widens and deepens the pool
-hydraulic action-deepens also
-so at base of waterfall a deep plunge pool forms

(b) In managing river discharge, many countries have built dams, like the one in Fig. 2. Discuss the threats they pose to the human and physical environment in employing such methods. [6]

Human environment

· Financial costs that must be incurred in
o construction of those structure.
o Maintenance of these structures, if not
· Poor maintenance will lead to cracks, which will lead to degeneration due to heavy rainfall and so structures will give way which will lead to the flooding of the lower course of the river
· Recent Earthquake in China, close to 300 dams inspected had cracks
o Huge financial strain to repair all affected dams.
o Dams collapsed, massive number of human deaths, destruction of settlements, farms downstream
· Sediments trapped behind dams
o Decrease in depth, leading to smaller capaityc of reservoir and river.
o Increase chance of flooding during heavy rainfall upstream
· Less food for riverine ecosystem
o Decrease in amount fish, shellfish etc
o Affect fishermen and farmers

Physical ENVIRONMENT
· Downstream deprived of sediments ,and less opportunity for flooding
· Formation of Depositional features such as floodplain, delta would be affected
· Decrease fertility of soil as there is less alluvium
· River dynamics after dam as the downstream is changed
· River has less sediments, therefore greater energy to erode

(c) With reference to Fig. 2b which shows a sketch of the photo in Fig. 2a, explain how features Y and Z are formed by marine processes? [5]

Z - Headland
Y - Bay

· alternating resistant and less resistant rocks
· Adjacent to the coast
· Less Resistant rocks - most erosion which gives rise to bays
· leaving more Resistant rock outcrops as headlands
· now as headlands receives highest energy waves – refraction
· so vulnerable to erosion more than the sheltered bays because wave energy dissipated at the bays which experience low energy waves- accumulation of sand
·
(d) Study Fig. 3b, identify and evaluate suitable measures to protect tourists’ beach at X and the area at Z. [8]

L1 0-3
Describes the suitable measures of breakwater, groynes and beach nourishment.

L2 4-6
Describe effectiveness OR ineffectiveness of 1 measure
Describe effectiveness OR ineffectiveness of 2 measures structures
Assess 3 effectiveness OR 3 ineffectiveness of 3 measures
OR
Assess all effectiveness AND ineffectiveness 3 measures with no refernce to
corresponding places—max 4

L3 7-8
Assess all effectiveness AND ineffectiveness of 1 measure and briefly for 2nd .
Assess all effectiveness AND ineffectiveness of 2 measures and briefly for 3rd
structure.
Assess all effectiveness AND ineffectiveness 3 measures

At Z…. Breakwater
- an artificial reef mage of cement or rocks
- built // to coast at some distance from the sea
- just in front of the headland

Function/Advantages
• Break force of waves at some distance from coast
• Creating a zone of quiet water, energy, deposition of materials behind break-water is slack

Disadvantages
1. costly to build and maintain
2. costly US$1m
3. breakwater can be unsightly, spoil scenery of beach. adds to the cost.


At X… Groynes and beach nourishment

Groynes
• Built perpendicular to coast

Function/advantages
• Stop movement of material from coast
• Interrupts Long Shore Drift
• Deposition on side of groyne facing Long Shore Drift -updrift side
• Widens the beach

BUT/disadvatages

• Erosion on the other side-downdrift side
Without regular maintenance of groyne systems they degrade and can become dysfunctional
· Spoils the natural beauty of the area
Tourists activities can be disrupted as this is a tourist beach


Beach nourishment

Advantages
• Simply means sand / beach replenishment
• i.e. rebuilding beaches
• Instant beaches
• Overnight beach

Disadvantages
• Very nice in the beginning
• Very expensive too
• US$1m to 6m per mile
• Temporary measure
• Erodes 10 time faster than natural beach
Lifespan of 10 years to 2 months

1. (a) Figure 1 shows an aerial view of a river. Name and describe the features labelled “X” and “Y”. [2]




(b) Figure 2 shows sketch diagrams of the formation of a river landform Z in the upper course of a river. Identify the river landform Z and describe how the feature is formed. [6]








(c) Describe the problem faced by people living near floodplains and suggest why they do not want to move away. [3]


(d) Name three coastal features that are formed by the erosion of large waves. [3]



(e) Spits and Tombolos (Figure 3) are depositional features found in certain coastal areas with low energy waves.




Describe and explain how they are formed. [5]





(f) To what extent are hard engineering methods such as seawalls and groynes useful in preventing wave erosion along the coasts? [6] (Refer to the notes on beach management that I have posted earlier on)

Suggested answers

1. (a) Figure 1 shows an aerial view of a river.
Name the features labelled “X” and “Y”. [2]
X = Ox bow lake, Y = Meander

(b) Figure 2 shows sketch diagrams of the formation of a river landform Z in the upper course of a river.
Identify the river landform Z and describe how the feature is formed. [6]

1. River landform Z is a waterfall.
2. A river flows across rocks of different resistance.
3. The river erodes the less resistant rock more rapidly
4. And this causes a change in the gradient of the river course.
5. Over time the river plunges from a great height
6. To hit the river bed below with tremendous force.
7. Repeated pounding of the river bed may leave a depression at the base of the waterfall (creating a plunge pool)

(c) Describe the problem faced by people living near floodplains and suggest why they do not want to move. [3]
1. They face the problems of flooding when the river overflows.
2. They do not want to move as the soil is very fertile / good for growing crops
3. This fertility is renewed every year when the river floods.

(d) Name three coastal features that are formed by the erosion of large waves.
[3]
Any 3 of the following:
Arch, stack, stump, cliffs, headlands, bays and wave-cut platforms

(e) Spits and Tombolos (Figure 3) are depositional features found in certain coastal areas with low energy waves.
Describe and explain how they are formed. [5]
1. A spit is formed when longshore currents encounter a bay or a bend in the coast with shallow sheltered water
2. And materials they carry will be deposited,
3. Resulting in a long narrow ridge of sand with one end attached to the mainland over time.
4. Tombolos are created when spits continue to extend seaward and
5. Sediments accumulate between the mainland and an island to join them together.




(f) To what extent are hard engineering methods such as seawalls and groynes useful in preventing wave erosion along the coasts? [6]


Level 1

No supported usefulness or using simple statement.
Eg. Hard engineering methods are useful.

Award 1m for the above and an additional mark for any supporting details.

Level 2

Describes one or more hard enginnering coastal protection scheme(s).
Brief statements of usefulness.

Eg.
Ø To protect a coast from erosion, people have built seawalls in front of a cliff or along the coast.
Ø A sea wall is usually made of concrete, which absorbs the energy of the waves and protects the coast against strong waves, especially during storms.
Ø Therefore, it stops the waves from rushing onto the beach and successfully helps to prevent wave erosion.

Award 3m for describe one method and an additional mark for any further supporting details to explain its usefulness.

Level 3

L2 + Explains the usefulness AND non usefulness of the coastal protection methods.
Clear statements of degree of effectiveness.

Eg.
Ø To protect a coast from erosion, people have built seawalls in front of a cliff or along the coast.
Ø A seawall is usually made of concrete, which absorbs the energy of the waves and protects the coast against strong waves, especially during storms.
Ø Therefore, it stops the waves from rushing onto the beach and successfully helps to prevent wave erosion.
Ø However, a seawall may not protect a coast from erosion in the long run.
Ø As waves break against the seawall, the energy from the waves is redirected downwards, to the base of the seawall, resulting in a strong backwash.
Ø The backwash wears away the base of the seawall, causing it to weaken and eventually collapse.

Award 5m for a description of a coastal protection method and an explanation of the effectiveness and ineffectiveness in implementing the method and an additional mark for any further supporting details/explanations of other methods to a maximum of 6m.